نوشتن جمله های محاوره ای

 

**. سه روش برای نوشتن جملات محاوره ای وجود دارد:

1) شکل رسمی         2) شکل کتابی         3) شکل محاوره ای

 

**.توجه داشته باشید که روش استاندارد برای نوشتن جملات محاوره ای به شکل کتابی این است که ابتدا بطور محاوره ای بنویسیم و بعد نوشته هایمان را کلمه به کلمه به ترتیب به صورت رسمی درآوریم بی آنکه کلمه ای به آن اضافه یا از آن کم کنیم. در نتیجه گرامر و ساختار جملات محاوره ای میشود اما کلمات شکل رسمی دارند. مثلاً شکل کتابی « اون آپارتمونا خیلی قشنگتر از این خونۀ قدیمی‌اند.» میشود: «آن آپارتمان‌ها خیلی قشنگتر از این خانۀ قدیمی‌اند.»

 

**. نکته دیگر اینکه لازم نیست حتما یک جمله محاوره ای به شکل کتابی نوشته شود ولی لازم است در استفاده از زبان محاوره ای ثبات سبک وجود داشته باشد. یعنی مثلا نباید یک قسمت از جمله تهرانی باشد ولی قسمتی دیگر به سبک و لهجه موطن مترجم نوشته شود.

 

**. اینکه کدام روش بهتر است بسته به تصمیم مترجم است اما اگر جمله های محاوره ای باعث سردرگمی خواننده شود یعنی جملات شفاف و روان نباشند همان بهتر که جملات محاوره ای انگلیسی به فارسی رسمی ترجمه شود.

 

**. مترجم شاید حق داشته باشد جملات محاوره ای انگلیسی را به جملات رسمی فارسی تبدیل کند اما هرگز حق ندارد جملات رسمی انگلیسی را به جملات محاوره ای فارسی تبدیل کند.

 

Unit 1

 

We can read of things that happened 5,000 years ago in the Near East, where people first learned to write. But there are some parts of the world where even now people cannot write. The only way that they can preserve their history is to recount it as sagas-legends handed down from one generation of story-tellers migration of people who lived long ago, but none could write down what they did. Anthropologists wondered where the remote ancestors of the Polynesian peoples now living in the Pacific Islands came from. The sagas of these people explain that some of them came from Indonesia about 2,000 years ago.

But the first people, who were like ourselves lived so long ago that even their sagas, if they had any, are forgotten. So archaeologists have neither history nor legends to help them to find out where the first 'modern men' came from.

Fortunately, however, ancient men made tools of stone, especially flint, because this is easier to shape than other kinds. They may also have used wood, & skins, but these have rotted away. Stone does not decay, & so the tools of long ago have remained when even the men who made them have disappeared without trace.

 

 

درس اول

 

امروزه ما قادریم به مطالعه و بررسی وقایعی بپردازیم که پنج هزار سال پیش در خاورمیانه رخ داده است چرا که انسان برای نخستین بار در آنجا بود که نوشتن را آموخت. با این حال در برخی نقاط جهان حتی هنوز هم کسانی یافت می‌شوند که نوشتن نمی‌دانند و تنها راه زنده نگهداشتن وحفظ تاریخ‌شان بازگو کردن آن در قالب افسانه‌های حماسی است که سینه به سینه از نسلی به نسلی دیگر منتقل می‌شود. این افسانه‌ها از آن جهت ارزشمندند که از مهاجرت اقوامی سخن می‌گویند که مدتها پیش می‌زیستند و هیچ یک قادر به ثبت تاریخ خود نبودند. برای نمونه، مردم شناسان تا مدتها نمی‌دانستند که اجداد دور اقوام پلی‌نزیایی1 که اکنون در جزایر اقیانوس آرام زندگی می‌کنند از کجا آمده‌اند. با این وجود، از افسانه‌های حماسی آنها چنین برمی‌آید که برخی از آنها حدود 2000 سال پیش از اندونزی به آنجا مهاجرت کرده‌اند. با این وجود، اولین انسانهای شبیه به ما، در گذشته‌ای چنان دور زندگی می‌کرده‌اند که حتی اگر افسانه‌ای هم داشته‌اند به دست فراموشی سپرده شده است. از اینرو باستان شناسان برای پی بردن به اینکه «انسان امروزی» از کجا آمده است، هیچ افسانه و یا تاریخ نوشته‌ای در دست ندارند.

خوشبختانه، انسانهای عهد باستان ابزارهایی از سنگ، بخصوص سنگ چخماق ــ بخاطر شکل پذیری آسانتر آن نسبت به دیگر سنگها ــ ساخته‌اند. آنها احتمالاً در ساختن اشیاء از چوب و پوست هم استفاده کرده‌اند که به مرور زمان از بین رفته است. اما سنگ به آسانی از بین نمی‌رود، از اینرو ابزارهای سنگی متعلق به گذشته‌های بسیار دور هنوز موجودند [که در مورد نحوه زندگی انسانهای عهد باستان اطلاعات زیادی به ما می‌دهند]، در حالی که کمترین اثری از استخوان‌های سازندگان‌شان باقی نمانده است.

---

1. Polynesian

Unit 34

 

This is a skeptical age, but although our faith in many of the things in which our forefathers fervently believed has weakened, our confidence in the curative properties of the bottle of medicine remains the same as theirs. This modern faith in medicines is proved by the fact that the annual drug bill of the Health Services is mounting to astronomical figures & shows no signs at present of ceasing to rise. The majority of the patients attending the medical out-patients departments of our hospitals feel that they have nor received adequate treatment unless they are able to carry home with them some tangible remedy in the shape of a bottle of medicine, a box of pills, or a small jar of ointment, & the doctor in charge of the department is only to too ready to provide them with these requirements. There is no quicker method of disposing of patients than by giving them what they are asking for, & since most medical men in the Health Services are overworked & have little time for offering time-consuming & little-appreciated advice on such subjects as diet, right living, & the need for abandoning bad habits, etc., the bottle, the box, & the jar are almost always granted them.

 

Nor is it only the ignorant & ill-educated person who has such faith in the bottle of medicine, especially if it be wrapped in white paper & sealed with a dab of red sealing-wax by a clever chemist. It is recounted of Thomas Carlyle that when he heard of the illness of his friend, Henry Taylor, he went of immediately to visit him, carrying with him in his pocket what remained of a bottle of medicine formerly prescribed for an indisposition of Mrs. Carlyle's. Carlyle was entirely ignorant of what the bottle in his pocket contained, of the nature of the illness form which his friend was suffering, & of what had previously been wrong with his wife, but a medicine that had worked so well in one form of illness would surely be of equal benefit in another, & comforted by Taylor's house. History does not relate whether his friend accepted his medical help, but in all probability he did. The great advantage of taking medicine is that it makes no demands on the taker beyond that of putting up for a moment with a disgusting taste, & inconvenience to themselves.

درس 34

 

عصر ما، عصر شک و تردید است و اگرچه باور ما نسبت به بسیاری از چیزهایی که پدرانمان عمیقاً به آن اعتقاد داشته‌اند ضعیف شده است، اما اعتقاد  ما به خواص شفابخشی داروها همچنان به قوت خود باقی است. شاهد این ادعا اینستکه صورتحساب سالیانه داروها در مراکز خدمات درمانی سر به ارقام نجومی گذاشته و در حال حاضر هیچ نشانه‌ای از توقف این روندِ رو به افزایش به چشم نمی‌خورد. علاوه بر این، اکثر بیمارانی که به بخش بیماران سرپایی بیمارستانهای ما مراجعه می‌کنند بیشتر انتظار دارند که دارویی ملموس در قالب شربت، قرص و یا پماد به آنها داده شود وگرنه احساس می‌کنند به درستی درمان نشده‌اند. از طرفی دکتر مربوطه هم به انجام این کار تمایل دارد چراکه سریع ترین روش برای خلاصی از دست بیماران، ارائه همان خدماتی است که آنان می‌خواهند و ازآنجا که اکثر پزشکان خدمات درمانی بیش از اندازه کار می‌کنند و وقت زیادی برای توصیه‌های وقت‌گیر و کم‌اثر در مورد مسایلی از قبیل رژیم غذایی، زندگی سالم و لزوم ترک عادات بد و غیره ندارند، در نهایت تقریباً همیشه شربت،قرص و پماد پیشکش بیماران می‌شود.

تنها افراد عامی و کم‌سواد هم نیستند که چنین اعتقادی به تاثیر معجزه‌آسای دارو دارند بخصوص اگر داروساز ماهری آنرا به زیبایی بسته بندی کرده باشد. می‌گویند روزی توماس کارلایل1 به محض اینکه خبر بیماری دوستش هنری تایلور2 را شنید، باقیمانده دارویی را که قبلاً برای ناخوشی همسرش تجویز شده بود، درون جیبش گذاشت و به طرف خانه دوستش به راه افتاد. درحالیکه نه از نوع دارو اطلاع داشت، نه از ماهیت بیماری دوستش و نه از مشکل سابق همسرش. اما او دلخوش به این بود که اگر دارویی یک نوع بیماری را درمان کرده، برای همه بیماریها خوب است. اگر چه تاریخ اشاره‌ای نکرده است که دوستش داروی پیشکشی او را ‌پذیرفته باشد، اما چنین فرضی محال نیست. مزیت مهم مصرف دارو این است که بیمار لازم نیست به جز تحمل لحظه‌ای طعم ناگوار به خود دردسری بدهد و این همان چیزی است که همه بیماران از پزشکان خود انتظار دارندــ یعنی معالجه بدون زحمت.

ـــــــــــــــــــــ

1.   Thomas Carlyle ، مقاله نویس و تاریخدان اسکاتلندی در قرن هجدهم. م

2.   Henry Taylor 

منجنیق آه مظلومان | سعدی

 

بـس بـگردیـد و بـگردد روزگـــار

دل به دنیـــا درنبنــــدد هوشیـــار

ای که دستت میرسد، کاری بـکــن

پیش از آن کز تو نیاید هیچ کـــــار

این که در شهنامه‌هـــا آورده‌انـــد

رستم و رویینه‌تن اسفندیــــــــار

تا بدانند این خداوندان مُلــــــک

کز بسی خلقست دنیا یادگـــــــار

این همه رفتند وما، ای شوخ‌چشـم

هیچ نگرفتیم از ایشان اعتبـــــــار

این همه هیچست چون ‌می‌بگــذرد

تخت‌وبخت‌ و امرونهی وگــیرودار

چون زبردستیت بخشید آسمــــان

زیردستان را همیشه نیـــــــک دار

زور بازو داری و شمشیر تــــــیز

گر جهان لشگر بگیرد غم مــــدار

از درون خستگان اندیشه کـــــن 

وز دعای مردم پرهــــیزگـــــار

منجنیق آه مظلومان به صـــــبـح

سخت گیرد ظالمان رادرحســاب

هر کرا خوف ‌وطمع‌درکارنیسـت

از خَتا باکش نباشد وز تـَتـــــار

The First Charter of Rights of Nations

I am Cyrus, king of the world, the great king, the powerful king, king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four quarters of the world, son of Cambyses, the great king, king of the city of Anshan, grandson of Cyrus, the great king, king of the city of Anshan; great-grandson of Teispes, the great king, king of the city of Anshan; eternal seed of royalty whose rule Bel and Nabu love, in whose administration they rejoice in their heart. When I made my triumphal entrance into Babylon, I took up my lordly residence in the royal palace with joy and rejoicing; Marduk, the great lord, moved the noble heart of the residents of Babylon to me, while I gave daily attention to his worship. My numerous troops marched peacefully into Babylon. In all Sumerand Akkad I permitted no enemy to enter. The needs of Babylon and of all its cities I gladly attended to. The people of Babylon [and . . .], and the shameful yoke was removed from them. Their dwellings, which had fallen, I restored. I cleared out their ruins. Marduk, the great lord, rejoiced in my pious deeds, and graciously blessed me, Cyrus, the king who worships him, and Cambyses, my own son, and all my troops, while we, before him, joyously praised his exalted godhead. All the kings dwelling in palaces, of all the quarters of the earth, from the Upper to the Lower sea dwelling [. . .] all the kings of the Westland dwelling in tents brought me their heavy tribute, and in Babylon kissed my feet. From [. . .] to Asshur and Susa, Agade, Eshnunak, Zamban, Meturnu, Deri, with the territory of the land of Qutu, the cities on the other side of the Tigris, whose sites were of ancient foundation— the gods, who resided in them, I brought back to their places, and caused them to dwell in a residence for all time And the gods of Sumer and Akkad—whom Nabonidus, to the anger of the lord of the gods, had brought into Babylon—by the command of Marduk, the great lord, I caused them to take up their dwelling in residences that gladdened the heart. May all the gods, whom I brought into their cities, pray daily before Bêl and Nabû for long life for me, and may they speak a gracious word for me and say to Marduk, my lord, "May Cyrus, the king who worships you, and Cambyses, his son, their [. . .] I permitted all to dwell in peace [. . .]

The Ritual Washing of the Corpse of the Assassinated King of Iran (Naser-o-Din Shah)

The Ritual Washing of the Corpse of the Assassinated King of Iran (Naser-o-Din Shah)

From Journals and Documents of Zahir-o-Dowleh

Ttanslated by M.R. Esnaashari

We came into the presence of the prime minister. Around half past midnight, the means for the ritual washing of the corpse was prepared …

The Shah's body, that was put on a small carpet and surrounded by all the princes and the ministers, was carried out of the room and set above the stairs, between two marble columns and then everybody left. Nobody stayed for the disrobement except: Mohammad Ali Khan Amin-o-Saltaneh , Shah's habilitator; Gholam Ali Amin-Homayun, the head servant; Ja'far Gholi Khan e Qajar, Hajeb-o-Dowleh, the Shah's doorman; Prince Haaj Fereydun Mirza who was brought there by the prime minister due to his being the eldest of the Qajars, as well as the fact that Qajars should wash the corpse of Shahs of Qajar; a cleric; Haaj Heydar, Shah's personal beard shaver; and some royal water carriers with Bulgar buckets in their hands.  Then I said, "God be praised. O Viewers! Do contemplate" [from the Holy Qoran]. Dear brother! Beware of the beginning and the end of the world! Beware what I say. What I have written and will write is what I myself have seen. It is not some rumor that may or may not be true. There are no lies in this.

At first, the water carriers poured some pails of water on the terrazzo between the crystal pool and the stairs, where common people took off their shoes, and washed it. Then Haaj Amin-o-Saltaneh took the royal black uniform with diamond embroidery off the king's body. The king had wishfully had it made for feasts and banquets and it had recently been finished. "There is no god but God" [from the Holy Qoran, used as exclamation meaning, O My Great God!] He took off all the king's clothes. Half of the king's shirt was covered in blood so that its whiteness has fully disappeared. I saw the Shah's scar accurately. It was as if Fate's own hand had had sealed it so that if someone had wanted to point his gun in the most precise manner and carefully shoot at the king's heart, surely he could not have been able to do so. The king's naked body was brought down the stairs and put on that terrazzo the water carriers washed. It was very very white and fat and proportionate. His beard was also shaved on this same day in this same place by Haaj Heydar, the king's personal beard shaver, before going to visit the shrine of Hazrat e Abdol-Azim. The sight of the king's red and bloodshod scar against that pure white spotless body was immeasurably painful.

That cleric who once wished to let him stand by the king's path was now standing with his shoes very near the king's head. He had stuck his robe under his arm to prevent defilement and desecration of his clothes by the splashes and was ordering the water carriers to pour while he himself was saying in a loud voice, "For the right side." Haaj Heydar the shaver rolled the king's body from right to left and one of the water carriers poured another Bulgar bucket of water. 

In short, they washed the Commanding King of Protected Provinces of Iran as if a beggar was being washed for burial according to the Prophet's (PBUH) Law and Command. Stranger than this the fact that he did not have any rights to all his claimed possessions even to something the worth of a shroud. They brought Azad-ol-Molk's shroud and wrapped him in it…"God is the only powerful king and He is the live one who never dies ..." [from the Holy Qoran].

منابع اصلی کارشناسی ارشد ادبیات انگلیسی

منابع اصلی کارشناسی ارشد ادبیات انگلیسی

 

1. A Glossary of Literary Terms / M. H. Abrams

2. Norton Anthology of English Literature / M. H. Abrams

3. A History of Literary Criticism / Vernon Hall

4. A Handbook of Literary Criticism

5. Survey of English Literature / Dr. Abjadian

6. A Summary of the secondary sources below

دانشمند واقعی و معرفت حقیقی | عباس اقبال

 

بنابراین معرفت حقیقی به کثرت معلومات و محفوظات نیست، بلکه معرفت حقیقی قوه ایست مرکب از حسن ذوق و خوشی قریحه و شم استنباط مطلب و حل مشکلات زندگی بوسیلۀ تعقل و چاره اندیشی معقول و این کار علاوه برآنکه یک مقدار استعداد طبیعی و ذوق خدادادی میخواهد، باید بوسیلۀ فراگرفتن معلومات دیگران و خواندن حاصل تجارب گذشتگان و تدابیر معاصرین بدست آید و در این راه مرد نباید یک آن از خواندن و تجربه اندوختن بیاساید و از آن نیندیشد که کلیۀ خوانده ها و فراگرفته ها در حفظ و بیاد او نمی ماند، همان قوه ای که گفتیم و غرض از معرفت حقیقی نیز همانست، بالاخره از همین راه حاصل می شود و دماغ در نتیجۀ همین خواندن ها و فراموش کردن ها تربیت شده و پخته و سالم بار می آید. . . . . «معرفت همان چیزی است که پس از خواندن همه چیز و فراموش کردن همه چیز، در دماغ بجا میماند.»

 

 

بدنبال سایۀ همای | محمدعلی اسلامی ندوشن

 

یکی دیگر از دشمن های بزرگ فرهنگ، «کوره سوادی» و «تحصیل ناقص» دورۀ عالی است. غالباً بی فرهنگان، در میان کسانی یافت میشوند که معلومات ناقص فراگرفته اند؛ همۀ مطالعۀ آنان محدود به چند جزوۀ دانشکده بوده و توانسته اند ورقه ای برای خود دست و پا کنند. اینان چون خود را باسواد می پندارند، پر شده اند از ادعا و تظاهر و نام خویشتن را «روشنفکر» می گذارند. باسواد نشده اند، در حالی که صفا و سادگی بی سوادی راهم از دست داده اند؛ معجون ترشیده ای شده اند که نه سرکۀ سرکه است و نه شرابِ شراب. . 

Poems by Langston Hughes

Peace

We passed their graves:

The dead men there

Winners or losers.

Did not care.

 

In the dark

They could not see

Who had gained

The victory .

Langston Hughes

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

The Dream Keeper

I loved my friend.

He went away from me.

There's nothing more to say.

The poem ends,

Soft as it began ––

I loved my friend.

Langston Hughes

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Dreams

Hold fast to dreams

For if dreams die

Life is a broken-winged bird

That cannot fly.

 

Hold fast to dreams

For when dreams go

Life is a barren field

Frozen with snow.

Langston Hughes

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Harlem

What happens to a dream deferred?

Does it dry up

Like a raisin in the sun?

Or fester like a sore ––

And then run?

Does it stink like rotten meat?

Or crust and sugar over ––

Like a syrupy sweet?

 

Maybe it just sags

Like a heavy load.

 

Or does it explode?

Langston Hughes

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Troubled Woman

She stands

In the quiet darkness,

This troubled woman

Bowed by

Weariness and pain

Like an autumn flower

In the frozen rain,

Like a

Wind-blown autumn flower

That never lifts its head

Again

 

Langston Hughes

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Some Poems by Stephen Crane

You say you are holy

You say you are holy,

And that

Because I have not seen you sin.

Aye, but there are those

Who see you sin, my friend.                  

                                                    Stephen Crane

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Huge Ball

Many workmen

Built a huge ball of masonry

Upon a mountain-top.

Then they went to the valley below,

And turned to behold their work.

"It is grand," they said;

They loved the thing.

Of a sudden, it moved:

It came upon them swiftly;

It crushed them all to blood.

But some had opportunity to squeal.

                                                    Stephen Crane

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Truth

"Truth," said a traveller,

"Is a rock, a mighty fortress;

Often have I been to it,

Even to its highest tower,

From whence the world looks black."

 

"Truth," said a traveller,

"Is a breath, a wind,

A shadow, a phantom;

Long have I pursued it,

But never have I touched

The hem of its garment."

 

And I believed the second traveller;

For truth was to me

A breath, a wind,

A shadow, a phantom,

And never had I touched

The hem of its garment.

                                                    Stephen Crane

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Charity

Charity thou art a lie,

A toy of women,

A pleasure of certain men.

In the presence of justice,

 

Lo, the walls of the temple

Are visible

Through thy form of sudden shadows.

                                                    Stephen Crane

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The Procession

There were many who went in huddled procession,

They knew not whither;

But, at any rate, success or calamity

Would attend all in equality.

 

There was one who sought a new road.

He went into direful thickets,

And ultimately he died thus, alone;

But they said he had courage.

                                                    Stephen Crane

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Learned Man

A learned man came to me once.

He said, "I know the way, — come."

And I was overjoyed at this.

Together we hastened.

 

Soon, too soon, were we

Where my eyes were useless,

And I knew not the ways of my feet.

 

I clung to the hand of my friend;

But at last he cried, "I am lost."

                                                    Stephen Crane

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